Events
I/ITSEC from December 2-6, 2024
Aaron Novstrup, an Artificial Intelligence Researcher at Stottler Henke, will be presenting a paper titled “Enhancing a Piloting Task Simulator with Real-time Performance Feedback, Autopilot Disruption, Shock Punishment, and Adaptive Task Difficulty” at I/ITSEC. The Interservice / Industry Training Simulation and Education Conference (I/ITSEC) is the leading military training conference, running from December 2-6, 2024. He will present work from the company’s larger research program on the automated real-time assessment of human cognitive states to inform automation that functions more responsively and effectively in human-automation teams. More specifically, Aaron will describe how Stottler Henke enhanced a piloting task simulator (the multi-attribute task battery, or MATB, originally developed by NASA) to increase participant engagement, self-awareness, and motivation, and to study human responses to incorrect or unexpected automation system behavior. Join Aaron at I/ITSEC to learn more!
MAST Australia (November 19-21, 2024) and Project Controls Expo (November 26-27, 2024)
Stottler Henke’s Principal Scientist Robert Richards, Ph.D. presented at the Maritime/Air Systems & Technologies Australia conference and Project Controls Expo. His presentations discussed lessons learned from working in complex project management and scheduling domains, ranging from submarine construction to aircraft production and MRO (maintenance, repair and overhaul). These lessons provide invaluable insights that can be applied to project management and project controls across all domains. Specifically, Dr. Richards presented how more detailed modeling capabilities, drawn from working with expert schedulers in these complex domains, provide more accurate scheduling during planning and execution.
Presented at the Global Energy Show Canada on June 11-13, 2024
Presented at the Critical Chain Conference on April 17-18, 2024
Exhibited at the 39th Space Symposium on April 8-11, 2024
Stottler Henke is participating in the 39th Space Symposium held April 8-11 at The Broadmoor in Colorado Springs, Colorado (Booth #842). The booth exhibits many of Stottler Henke’s space related technologies ranging from automatic intelligent space operations scheduling and automated resource scheduling to automatic intelligent space situational awareness.
Presented at the NATO Modelling and Simulation Group Symposium (MSG-207) on October 19-20, 2023
Stottler Henke’s presentation titled: “Desktop & Cloud MH-60R Helicopter Training Simulator, Designed for Rapid Modification for Different Nations,” covers OMIA (Operator Machine Interface Assistant), a primarily expandable, easily modifiable, low-cost PC-hosted desktop or cloud-based crew.
Attended and Presented at IT²EC 2023 in Rotterdam, the Netherlands on April 24-26, 2023
Stottler Henke’s presentation in the Disruptive Technology (DisTec) track is titled: “An MH-60R success story: how to elevate your training via a modifiable PC-Based simulator for your entire helicopter crew.”
38th Space Symposium: April 17-20, 2023
Stottler Henke is participating in the 38th Space Symposium held April 17-20 at The Broadmoor in Colorado Springs, Colorado (Booth #710). The booth exhibits many of Stottler Henke’s space related technologies ranging from automatic intelligent space operations scheduling and automated resource scheduling to automatic intelligent space situational awareness.
Stottler Henke Presents at MAST Maritime/Air Systems & Technologies – The Mediterranean: Laboratory for Naval Warfare
Stottler Henke presented two papers at the 2022 Maritime/Air Systems & Technologies – The Mediterranean: Laboratory for Naval Warfare in Athens, Greece:
1. Increased Submarine Production and Maintenance Throughput via Intelligent Scheduling, highlights the impact of optimized scheduling and the benefits of intelligent scheduling to the maritime community.
2. Desktop MH-60R Helicopter Training Simulator, Designed for Rapid Modification for Different Nations, demonstrates the benefits of PC-based training for helicopter crew member training and the benefits of designing the software for rapid modification to allow for rapid customization for different nation.
Stottler Henke Presents at SMC
Stottler Henke presented the paper, Reduced Project Duration via Intelligent Scheduling for Ship Production/Repair at the 2022 SNAME (Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers) Maritime Convention (SMC 2022) in Houston, Texas. This presentation highlights the impact of optimized scheduling and the benefits of intelligent scheduling to the maritime community.
Stottler Henke attends MRO IT Conference
Our Head of Business Development, Rob Richards, met with executives at the 2022 Airline & Aerospace MRO & Flight Operations IT Conference – Americas in Miami, Florida. Exploring collaboration opportunities with Collinear Group and many others to expand the availability of Aurora’s intelligent scheduling solution to more of the aircraft MRO community.
Met with Carlos Bianchi of Seabury Solutions.
Met with John Maggiore of Collinear Group.
MRO America Aviation Week April 26-28, 2022
Stottler Henke will be in attendance at the MRO America Aviation Week. The event takes place from April 26-28, 2022 at the Kay Bailey Hutchison Convention Center in Dallas, Texas. We will be surrounded by subject matter experts covering topics such as Fleet and MRO Forecast, Driving Down Costs and Accelerating Change, as well as MRO IT System Modernization and Tech Ops Transformation.
In our own brochure, Aurora Maintenance Repair and Overhaul (MRO), we highlight how the world’s leading planning and scheduling software solution combines expert knowledge with artificial intelligence to optimize resource allocation and overall production efficiency. In it, you can read how companies such as Boeing choose Aurora to handle their MRO, for their own Boeing 787 Dreamliner assembly, among other operations, because it outperforms their own specially developed software. Further, you can learn how Aurora can reduce turnaround time 20-30% more than competitors like Primavera and Microsoft Project.
37th Space Symposium: April 4-7, 2022
Stottler Henke is participating in the 37th Space Symposium to be held April 4-7 at the Broadmoor in Colorado Springs, Colorado (Booth #606). We will be exhibiting many of Stottler Henke’s space related technologies ranging from automatic intelligent space operations scheduling and automated resource scheduling to automatic intelligent space situational awareness. Hosted by the Space Foundation, the annual Space Symposium brings together thousands of the world’s leading space enthusiasts, providing opportunities for information on and interaction among all sectors of space. Topics covered include Operations Scheduling, Situational Awareness, Command and Control, and OpsTraining.
IEEE Aerospace March 5-12, 2022
At the IEEE Aerospace Conference 2022, Stottler Henke presents the following three papers: Challenges in Explaining Source Code Quality Assessment, Autoloader: Cargo Handling Software for Navy and Marine Aircraft, and OMIA: MH-60R Helicopter Desktop Crew Trainer & Software Change Experimentation Tool.
36th Space Symposium: August 23-26, 2021
Stottler Henke is participating in the 36th Space Symposium held August 23-26 at the Broadmoor in Colorado Springs, Colorado (Booth #208), exhibiting many of Stottler Henke’s space related technologies ranging from automatic intelligent space operations scheduling, automated resource scheduling, to automatic intelligent space situational awareness. This event brings together thousands of the world’s leading space enthusiasts, providing opportunities for information on and interaction among all sectors of space. Topics covered include Operations Scheduling, Situational Awareness, Command and Control, and Ops Training.
IEEE Aerospace Conference 2020: March 7-14, 2020
At the IEEE Aerospace Conference 2020, Stottler Henke presents three papers: Leveraging PHM in Conjunction with Intelligent Scheduling to Improve Manufacturing Resilience, Semi-Supervised Machine Learning for Spacecraft Anomaly Detection & Diagnosis, and A Case Study Using CBR Insight to Visualize Source Code Quality. Beyond the breathtaking scenery, ski-designed peaks, as well as the wildlife that Big Sky, Montana had to offer, there was a mass convergence of dedicated aerospace experts who came together for a common goal in sharing their knowledge.
Advanced Maui Optical and Space Surveillance Technologies Conference (AMOS)
Stottler Henke is presenting “Automatic, Intelligent SSN Sensor Scheduling using Artificial Intelligence Techniques” at the Advanced Maui Optical and Space Surveillance Technologies Conference (AMOS) being held September 17-20, 2019 in Maui, Hawaii. This event brings together individuals from academia, the government, and private groups who are interested in space situational awareness and space sustainability.
AFWERX FUSION XPERIENCE Conference
Stottler Henke is attending the AFWERX FUSION XPERIENCE Conference in Las Vegas, NV, July 23-24, 2019, exploring connection and collaboration with government & industry leaders.
Small Business of the Year Finalist Award at IITSEC 2018 by MS&T Magazine
Stottler Henke was presented with the Small Business of the Year Finalist Award at IITSEC 2018 by MS&T Magazine. Learn More.
Hello Tomorrow Global Summit
We’re thrilled to share the news that our Aurora intelligent scheduling optimization technology has been selected as one of @hellotmrc’s Top 500 deeptech startups worldwide in the Data & AI track!
15th International Multidisciplinary Modeling and Simulation Multiconference (I3M 2018): September 17-19, 2018
Stottler Henke and ShadowBox LLC won a Best Paper Award at the 15th International Multidisciplinary Modeling and Simulation Multiconference (I3M 2018), held in Budapest, Hungary Sept. 2018. The paper is based on the work being performed by the team of ShadowBox and Stottler Henke under the SBIR Phase II project, “Stratagems: ShadowBox Training to Augment Game-Based Simulations for Combat Rescue Helicopter Aircrew,” funded by the U.S. Air Force under Contract No. FA8650-17-C-6865.
TechDebt 2018: May 27-28, 2018
Stottler Henke will be participating in a panel discussion to showcase our initial work on CBR Insight and metrics for identifying technical debt at TechDebt 2018, which will be held jointly with ICSE 2018 in Gothenburg, Sweden, May 27-28. “Technical debt describes a universal software development phenomenon: design or implementation constructs that are expedient in the short term but set up a technical context that can make future changes more costly or impossible. Software developers and managers increasingly use the concept to communicate key tradeoffs related to release and quality issues. The goal of this two-day conference is to bring together leading software researchers, practitioners, and tool vendors to explore theoretical and practical techniques that manage technical debt.” A huge thanks to ICSE and best of luck to our very own Jeremy Ludwig (Principal Engineer) who will be presenting “Static Software Metrics for Reliability and Maintainability” at the event.
34th Space Symposium: April 16-19, 2018
Stottler Henke participated in the 34th Space Symposium held April 16-19 at the Broadmoor in Colorado Springs, Colorado (Booth #1021), exhibiting many of Stottler Henke’s space related technologies ranging from automatic intelligent space operations scheduling to automatic intelligent space situational awareness. This event brings together thousands of the world’s leading space enthusiasts, providing opportunities for information on and interaction among all sectors of space. Topics covered include Operations Scheduling, Situational Awareness, Command and Control, and Ops Training.
IEEE Aerospace Conference: March 3-10, 2018
On Monday, March 5, 2018, Stottler Henke presented its work on Managed Intelligent Deconfliction and Scheduling for Satellite Communication at the 2018 IEEE Aerospace Conference. Aside from the powdery ski-friendly snow that Big Sky, Montana had to offer, there was an incredible amount of driven aerospace enthusiasts brought into a single experience. Stottler Henke’s main headliner for this event was our satellite communication scheduling solution called MIDAS, which has Aurora as its foundation.
ACM 23rd International Conference on Intelligent User Interfaces (IUI 2018): March 7-11, 2018
Stottler Henke is presenting at the Explainable Smart Systems Workshop, part of the 23rd International Conference on Intelligent User Interfaces (IUI 2018) being held March 7-11 in Tokyo, Japan. This event serves “as a premiere international forum for reporting outstanding research and development on intelligent user interface.”
32nd AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence (AAAI-18): February 2–7, 2018
Below is information on some of the technologies.
AMERICAN AEROSPACE & DEFENSE SUMMIT 2017
Stottler Henke will be attending and exhibiting at the AMERICAN AEROSPACE & DEFENSE SUMMIT 2017 on December 5-6th, 2017. Aurora Intelligent Scheduling will be featured at this event.
Global Summit-Le Centiquatre Paris: October 26-27, 2017
We’re thrilled to share the news that our Aurora intelligent scheduling optimization technology has been selected as one of @hellotmrc’s Top 500 deeptech startups worldwide in the Data & AI track!
International Conference on Automated Planning and Scheduling (ICAPS): June 18-23, 2017
IEEE Aerospace Conference 2017
Stottler Henke attended and presented at the 2017 IEEE Aerospace Conference from March 4-11, 2017 in Big Sky, MT.
- On Tuesday, March 7, 2017, Stottler Henke participated in the panel PHM from a Practitioner’s Perspective – a Potpourri of Capabilities, Experiences, and Lessons Learned
The video of the slides presented by Stottler Henke during the Prognostics and Health Management (PHM) Panel provides information regarding the need for intelligent resource scheduling in conjunction with PHM results, so that the feedback received from PHM is leveraged in the most efficient manner.
- On Wednesday, March 8, 2017, Stottler Henke presented its work on Intelligent Scheduling at NASA: Application to Ground Operations at Kennedy Space Center
For more information, click here.
Intelligent Tutoring and Simulation at I/ITSEC 2016
At I/ITSEC 2016, Stottler Henke presented our latest intelligent simulation-based tutoring systems for military training.
Exhibit booth: 1208
From November 28 through December 2, 2016, we offered demonstrations of intelligent training systems that provide automated after-action review, coaching, and guided reflection in areas such as tactical decision-making, command and control, team coordination, and systems operations.
AMOS Conference 2016
The AMOS (Advanced Maui Optical and Space Surveillance Technologies) Conference is the leading forum for participants from the fields of Defense and Academe to explore and unveil new ideas and achievements in the field of space surveillance—with a special focus on Space Situational Awareness (SSA).
At AMOS 2016, to be held September 20-23, 2016, on Maui, Hawaii, Stottler Henke will present its TRACER system, currently under development for the Air Force Research Laboratory (AFRL). TRACER is a set of AI-based automated and automatable tools which monitor AF Remote Tracking Station (RTS) and Directional Finder (DF) antenna signals to detect and categorize Electro Magnetic Interference (EMI). TRACER will provide the Air Force with improved SSA, offer increased support for adversarial scenarios (both real and during training), and dramatically shorten EMI response time—and, in so doing, realize significant manpower savings for AFRL. The ultimate goal of TRACER is to automate terrestrial EMI emitter localization and identification.
AFRL SSA Conference 2016
Stottler Henke will further highlight the Space Situation Awareness applications of TRACER at the SECRET Level AFRL SSA Conference to be held on Maui September 19-20, 2016.
This material is based upon work supported by the United States Air Force under Contract No. FA9453-15-M-0474. Any opinions, findings and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the United States Air Force.
KDD 2016
At the 22nd ACM SIGKDD Conference on Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining (KDD2016), held August 13-17, 2016 in San Francisco, CA, Stottler Henke presented the Extensible Platform for Automated Tactical Sensor Screening (ExPATSS) system, an AI-based decision support system developed for the Navy to automatically detect and classify ships by simultaneously processing several video streams and applying deep learning to perform ship detection and classification.
This material is based upon work supported by the Naval Sea Systems Command under Contract No. N00024-14-C-4082. Any opinions, findings and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the Naval Sea Systems Command.
MAST Europe 2016
At the Maritime Air/Systems & Technologies (MAST) Europe 2016 Conference, held June 21-23, 2016 in Amsterdam, Netherlands, Stottler Henke presented the Intelligent Pairing Assistant (IPA), an AI-based decision support system which provides recommendations at specific decision points in the planning process within USAF Air Operations Centers (AOCs).
Within a US Air Force Air Operations Center, planners make crucial decisions to create the air plan for any given day. One major challenge is making the best use of available resources. For instance, rather than assigning an unmanned aerial vehicle to an intelligence, surveillance, and/or reconnaissance collection task, it may be more cost effective and expedient to further task a manned aircraft that is already operating in the area. Hurried human planners often overlook opportunities to take advantage of relationships between tasks.
This paper describes the Intelligent Pairing Assistant (IPA) decision aid, which uses encoded expert knowledge to analyze the data and present recommendations at specific decision points in the planning process. IPA assists planners in making their decisions by generating recommendations that narrow down the possibilities that must be considered. Specifically, IPA filters the existing missions to highlight those most likely to be able to meet a specific collection request or set of requests. IPA then provides additional information for these missions in a graphical format to help the planner quickly decide among the available missions.
IPA is deployed as a plug-in to a software system already in use within US Air Force Air Operations Centers. The primary contributions of this case study are applying artificial intelligence techniques to the air planning domain and discussing the software evaluation efforts in moving from a prototype to a deployed system.
ICAPS 2016
On Friday, June 17, 2016, Stottler Henke presented its latest results per the deployed solution Aurora-VT (Vehicle Testing), an AI-based intelligent planning and scheduling system for optimizing the scheduling of vehicle testing suites, at the 26th Annual International Conference on Automated Planning and Scheduling (ICAPS) held in London, UK, Jun 12-17, 2016.
2016 NSRP Planning, Production Processes, and Facilities Panel Meeting
On Wednesday, April 20, 2016, Stottler Henke showcased how Aurora’s intelligent scheduling and critical chain project management (CCPM) can benefit US Navy shipyards and US Navy contractor shipyards at the annual Planning, Production Processes and Facilities (PPP&F) Panel Meeting, held in Portland, OR Apr 19-20, 2016.
2016 IEEE Aerospace Conference
On Wednesday, March 9, 2016, Stottler Henke presented its work on Serious Games for Team Training and Knowledge Retention for Long-Duration Space Missions at the 2016 IEEE Aerospace Conference held in Big Sky, MT, Mar 5-12, 2016.
Intelligent Tutoring and Simulation at I/ITSEC 2015
At I/ITSEC 2015, we presented our latest intelligent simulation-based tutoring systems for military training.
Exhibit booth: 1009
We presented demonstrations of intelligent training systems that provide automated after-action review, coaching, and guided reflection in areas such as tactical decision-making, command and control, team coordination, and systems operations.
At the conference, Stottler Henke’s Creature101 was a Serious Games Showcase and Challenge Finalist.
Intelligent Planning and Scheduling for Crash Test Vehicle Optimization at Automotive Testing Expo Europe 2015
Intelligent Planning and Scheduling for Pharmaceutical Industry at INTERPHEX 2015
At INTERPHEX 2015, Stottler Henke, as part of the Intellicentic consortium led by Pfizer, presents Aurora-ProPlan for optimizing pharmaceutical packaging scheduling.
Exhibit booth: Intellicentic booth (part of Federal Equipment Company booth)
Intelligent Tutoring and Simulation at I/ITSEC 2014
At I/ITSEC 2014, we presented our latest intelligent simulation-based tutoring systems for military training.
Exhibit booth: 1800
We presented demonstrations of intelligent training systems that provide automated after-action review, coaching, and guided reflection in areas such as tactical decision-making, command and control, team coordination, and systems operations.
Intelligent Tutoring and Simulation at I/ITSEC 2013
At I/ITSEC 2013, we presented our latest intelligent simulation-based tutoring systems for military training.
Exhibit booth: 2126
We presented demonstrations of intelligent training systems that provide automated after-action review, coaching, and guided reflection in areas such as tactical decision-making, command and control, team coordination, and systems operations.
Tutorials:
Intelligent Tutoring Systems for Enhancing Warfighter Performance: A Practical Introduction(1220) | Mon 2 Dec at 1430-1600 room S320C |
Paper presentations:
Generalizing Automated Assessment of Small Unit Tactical Decision Making (13272, session EC12) | Wed 4 Dec at 0830 room S320D |
26th Annual Conference on Innovative Applications of Artificial Intelligence (IAA-14)
“A Schedule Optimization Tool for Destructive and Non-Destructive Vehicle Tests”, paper has been accepted for presentation as an Emerging Application paper at the Twenty-Sixth Annual Conference on Innovative Applications of Artificial Intelligence (IAAI-14).
Intelligent Tutoring and Simulation at I/ITSEC 2012
At I/ITSEC 2012, we presented our latest intelligent simulation-based tutoring systems for military training.
Exhibit booth: 2126
We presented demonstrations of intelligent training systems that provide automated after-action review, coaching, and guided reflection in areas such as tactical decision-making, command and control, team coordination, and systems operations.
Tutorials:
Intelligent Tutoring Systems: Advanced Learning Technology for Enhancing Warfight Performance (1220) | Mon 3 Dec at 1245-1415 room W304G |
Paper presentations:
A General Framework for Developing Training Apps on Android Devices (12006, session EC12) | Thurs 6 Dec at 1330 room W304F |
Stottler Henke presented the following papers that describe intelligent scheduling, situation awareness, control, and visualization software.
Tactical Action Officer ITS at 2012 ASTD Awards Ceremony
US Navy received an Excellence in Practice Award from ASTD for their use of Stottler Henke’s Tactical Action Officer ITS and other intelligent tutoring systems. Learn more…
NASA’s Chief Technologist Dr. Mason Peck Visits Stottler Henke
On April 17, 2012, Dick Stottler, president, briefed Dr. Peck on artificial intelligence planning, scheduling, and training systems and technologies developed by Stottler Henke for NASA. As NASA’s Chief Technologist, Dr. Peck serves as the agency’s principal advisor and advocate on matters concerning technology policy and programs. NASA’s Office of the Chief Technologist coordinates, tracks and integrates technology investments across the agency and works to infuse innovative discoveries into future missions.
Stottler Henke Presents at 2012 Continuous Process Improvement Symposium
Stottler Henke provides an Introduction to Critical Chain Project Management presentation at the 2012 Continuous Process Improvement Symposium.
The content for the presentation is similar to:
Stottler Henke provided a lecture on Reduced Production and Maintenance Project Duration via Intelligent Resource Allocation & Constraint Management: Navy and Other Applications at ShipTech 2012.
In complex production and maintenance environments, such as shipbuilding and maintenance, the method of allocating resources and managing other constraints significantly affects the efficiency of progress as well as the overall project duration. Resources include human resources, equipment resources and physical-space resources. Human resources alone can be quite complex; for example, tasks may require multiple individuals, each of whom may need to have certain occupations (such as a mechanic), and there may be additional requirements for some or all the individuals to have additional specific skills/certifications. Add to this the limitation of equipment (e.g., cranes) and the complexity only grows. In shipbuilding and maintenance, physical space is often a limiting resource; for example, when conducting submarine maintenance, physical-space limitations are common, as well as the physical-space limitation of submarine ingress and egress. As if these considerations were not complex enough, other constraints are usually present, such as constraints on certain types of work (e.g., hot work), when other conditions are in effect.
Due to the inherent complexity of resource allocation and constraint management for such complex production and maintenance environments, the project durations can be two-times, or more, longer than needed. Mathematically, the resource-constrained scheduling problem can be shown to be very complex, and for projects of any realistic size the globally-optimum solution cannot be guaranteed in less than geological time even on the fastest computers. Therefore, many branches of science and engineering from operations research to Artificial Intelligence have developed techniques to find relatively optimum solutions in realistic timeframes. Unfortunately, most commercial project management software does not benefit from such intelligent scheduling technology.
This presentation shows that the method used affects the project duration even for relatively small projects consisting of a few dozen tasks, and the effect becomes more pronounced as the number of tasks grows and number of types and quantity of resources expand. Some of the literature on this topic showing different techniques and results showing the major difference in schedule duration due to the scheduling method is also reviewed. Many lessons will be drawn from Stottler Henke’s own work in this area. Since the early 1990s, Stottler Henke has been working with NASA, Boeing, the US Navy and other companies to develop advanced scheduling technologies and software using Artificial Intelligence (AI) and other techniques. Lessons learned from experience at the Naval Submarine Support Facility (NSSF) and at Boeing per the manufacture of the B787 Dreamliner are provided. Without adding one extra resource, an entire project can be shortened significantly; therefore the application of more-efficient resource allocation and constraint management methods can reduce total ownership cost of naval ships while enhancing the competitiveness of the domestic shipbuilding industry.
Lean Project Management Forum 2010
Critical Chain Introduction
Aurora-CCPM Overview
Barcelona, Spain
Stottler Henke provided a lecture on Critical Chain and its Aurora-CCPM software at the Lean
Project Management Forum 2010 in Barcelona, Spain, on December 13, 2010. These presentations showcased the benefit of Critical Chain in current project management methodologies, and demonstrate Aurora-CCPM’s features and benefits as a project management software.
Download Stottler Henke’s presentations below:
- Critical Chain Project Management Introduction presentation: PowerPoint (with audio when in presentation mode) / Video of presentation with audio WMV (80MB)
- Aurora-CCPM Overview presentation: PowerPoint;
About Lean Project Management Forum Barcelona
International experts in various areas of project management presented new methodologies, tools and approaches for the management of time and scarce resources in highly competitive environments. Lean Project Management Forum Barcelona was hosted by Lean Project Solutions, which is comprised of an international team of specialists in project management. Other partners of the forum include Stottler Henke Associates, System Institut, Universitat Autonoma de Barcelona and Network Solution Systems.